The rubber boom in colonial south-east Asia was followed by the arrival in increasing numbers of indentured labour from other colonised areas, mainly India, to serve in the larger-scale plantations. Despite the gradual abolition of indentured labour, the contract system that took its place, perpetuated the workers' exploitation, albeit in a different manner. Free labour would arrive only with independence. Independence would also see the formation of the first labour organisations, the end of long-distance recruitment and also released the long-suffering smallholder from any restraints on production and land use.
