Rituals of Avoidance or Rituals of Confrontation? Eugene F Irschick This essay examines the historical traditions which gave rise to Gandhian non-violent protest in order to understand the meaning of it as ritual In particular the author looks at the traditions which generated the Gandhian strategy of hartals or voluntary closing of shops, picketing, and fasting as ways to force authorities to come to terms with their demands. The presentation draws on material from both pre-colonial India and the period of early British penetration in the Tamil-speaking area of Madras Presidency.

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